Jal Mehta and Sarah Fine, In Search of Deeper Learning: the Quest to Remake the American High School (2019)

It's widely acknowledged that American education (and in this I would include everything from elementary schooling through college) is not in good shape: our 15-years olds achieve only middling scores on the triennial PISA tests, which have become the gold standard for comparing high schoolers around the world in terms of their academic skills in reading, math, and science. Since roughly 2012 American students' scores on various standardized tests have plateaued or drifted downward. Even teachers at selective high schools, as I am, are alarmed, even distraught. For this book, the authors spent hundreds of hours over six years observing classes and talking with students, teachers, and administrators in several dozen American high schools. They acknowledge the pervasive problems in American high schools, but have chosen to focus on the bright spots in the hope that these can inspire reformers elsewhere. Their understanding of "deeper learning" involves three components: mastery (of content and skills), identity (by which they mean students' intrinsic motivation to learn), and creativity (the ability to apply knowledge and make a difference in the world). It's a real strength of the book that, although Mehta and Fine favor progressive education, they also investigate other, sometimes very different, approaches: "no excuses" high schools like some charters, International Baccalaureate programs, and traditional comprehensive high schools. All of these approaches get a fair evaluation here, I think. My own pedagogical philosophy, inspired by reaction against the reflexive support for progressive, "child-centered," "project-based" I've encountered for the last 15 years in Brooklyn and also by my reading of E.D. Hirsch, leans more in the direction of knowledge-transmission. But I want to read more. The book does a good job describing the doleful effects of credentialism and what they call "performance orientation" (students performing for the teacher, rather than genuinely wanting to learn - what they call "learning orientation"). There's no shortage of this at my school. The terms are helpful in capturing behaviors I've long observed. One thing that isn't discussed in the book is what I believe is the catastrophic effect of phones and other digital media on attention spans and motivation. Learning orientation is being squeezed to death between credentialism and performance orientation, on the one hand, and digital distractions, on the other.

David Brion Davis, The Problem of Slavery in Western Culture (1966)

I think my interest in this book was inspired by the so-called "racial reckoning" of recent years - Black Lives Matter, the Times's 1619 Project, anti-racism, etc. - and my sense that many of the claims that these movements and projects made about the American past were of dubious merit. I was looking for a book that would help me understand slavery as a global phenomenon, so that both the common and uncommon elements of slavery in the New World would become clearer. And I wanted to understand how and why anti-slavery movements developed, for the first time ever in human history, in 18th century Britain, North America, and France. This book only tangentially addresses the first question, as it focuses, true to its title, on slavery in western culture (I might have to read Orlando Patterson's Slavery and Social Death for a more global view of the topic); it devotes more time to the second, though I would have to read the second book in Davis's trilogy to take the full measure of the origins of the abolitionist movements. Davis, who died in the last couple of years, was the preeminent historian of American slavery, and this book is a tour-de-force of intellectual history. With great patience and care, he uncovers the assumptions and arguments - often drawing on Biblical notions of man as a fallen being and sin as (some) men's penance - that justified the "paradox" of regarding "a man as a thing." All along there were debates and even isolated doubts, though nothing that resembled a principled stance against slavery itself - until the 18th century.

Jonathan Kennedy, Pathogenesis: A History of the World in Eight Plagues (2023)

The first 90% of this book is scintillating, the final 10% perplexing and disappointing. Kennedy's work aims to update William McNeill's pioneering 1976 work on the interplay between people and germs, Plagues and Peoples. Five decades ago, we simply didn't know much about ancient plagues. In the intervening years, the revolutionary growth of biological knowledge, especially the sequencing of contemporary and ancient genomes, has put us on much more secure ground. Kennedy begins by making a plausible case for a revolution in our thinking about human history: just as Copernicus and Darwin (and perhaps Freud) decentered man, our increasing understanding of microbes should now do the same. Humans don't make history on their own (even in circumstances not of their choosing a la Marx) - humans and microbes (bacteria and viruses) together make history. After all, the number of bacteria in each of us is apparently about the same as the number of "our own" cells. These bacteria attack us occasionally, of course; they help us digest food; and they play a role apparently in modulating our moods. Their even more numerous cousins, viruses, have become incorporated in our DNA. Who am I, indeed! Kennedy doesn't spend much time on microbes' role in influencing out behavior (perhaps for the reasons David Reich gave - see previous post) and instead focuses on their role as agents of destruction. He makes plausible arguments that microbial diseases have played a much more decisive role in turning points in human history: the triumph of homo sapiens over other humans, such as Neanderthals, Denisovans, and the Hobbits of Flores; the displacement by early Indo-Europeans of neolithic farmers in Europe; the Europeans' preference for African slaves rather than European indentured servants. These first 90% of the book changes my picture of big history in major ways. Then we get to the last part of the book. Kennedy barely mentions the breakthrough due to the germ theory of disease, the development of antibacterial and antiviral drugs, and the exponential growth of biotech thanks to genetic manipulation. He discounts the role of medicine and rising living standards in improving health. Instead, he claims, improvements all due to political commitments to public health. I wish he had consulted Angus Deaton's magisterial The Great Escape. In his coverage of the last 150 years, Kennedy focuses on politics, especially baleful political decisions made by "neoliberal" leaders. Bizarrely, in a book about plagues, he switches from microbial to lifestyle diseases. In the end, he suggests, most people today live in "what must feel more like a dystopia" (226). All in all, this last section seemed like it was shaped by what I take to be Kennedy's political commitments. It's a perplexing ending to what otherwise is a thought-provoking, persuasive book.

David Reich, Who We Are and How We Got Here: Ancient DNA and the New Science of the Human Past (2018)

This is a fascinating look at the new science of ancient DNA by one of the field's pioneers. In the 1980s the female mitochondrial and male Y chromosomes were first sequenced, followed in 2001 by the entire genome. 2010 was the breakthrough year for ancient DNA when Svante Paabo and colleagues at the Max Planck Institute in Leipzig first sequenced ancient Neanderthal DNA. Five years later, Reich's lab at Harvard built on Paabo's work to "industrialize" the sequencing of ancient DNA: by now thousands of ancient individuals' DNA going back more than 50,000 years and including "modern humans," Neanderthals, and species newly discovered by these techniques, including Denisovans and Homo Floriensis ("Hobbits"), have been analyzed. Interestingly, Reich says that the sequencing of the whole genome has not yet shed much light on the genetic sources of behavior. Given the fact that usually dozens of genes contribute to individual behaviors, Reich admits, it may never do so. However, whole genome sequencing, including of ancient individuals, has made a major, indeed revolutionary, contribution to the understanding of the deep human past. Reich thinks this revolution is so fundamental that is best grasped not by comparison with the dedoding of DNA by Crick and Watson in 1953; rather, it's more like the invention of the microscope in the seventeenth century: a whole new world is coming into view, much of it at odds with previously held theories. The mixing of modern humans and Neanderthals turns out to be much more complex than previously thought. Several "ghost populations" - no longer extant but the source of some contemporary populations - can be identified. A much more detailed, and radically new, picture of the peopling of Europe, India, the Americas, and East Asia has become possible. For example, ancient DNA has settled the debate about the origin of the earliest Indo-Europeans - they came from the Pontic steppe, not Anatolia. As they spread to the west, they merged with neolithic farming population, who in turn had merged with indigenous hunter-gatherers. The precise contribution of these three source-populations to contemporary Europeans can be measured. Something similar happened in India, where Reich's techniques have allowed him to identify the emergence of numerous endogamous populations - castes - starting around 2,000 years ago. Four distinct waves settled the Americas, one of which, however, remains hard to pin down. As Reich repeatedly acknowleged, ancient DNA is a rapidly developing field. Many of the results he included in his 2018 book will now have been modified, overturned, or superceded.